"It is now thirty years since this outrage to humanity was perpetrated in the persons of these blind men...six men...were reduced to the humiliating necessity of begging their daily bread...These men had been grotesquely costumed in robes and long-pointed hats. On their noses they had put huge paste-board spectacles without glasses.
Early Tactile Innovation
FRANCE
Embossed Print
In 1771, Valentin Haüy witnessed the abuse of blind individuals for entertainment. His reaction:
Yes, I said to myself, seized by an exalted enthusiasm, I will substitute the truth for this mocking parody. I will make the blind to read! I will put in their hands volumes printed by themselves. They will trace the true characters and will read their own writing."
~ "First, Second, and Third Notes of Citizen Haüy," 1771
"The Hauy Brothers..." Original by Julien-Léopold Boilly, Engraving by Alphonse Boilly, ProQuest eLibrary
Determined to help the blind support themselves through work instead of charity, Haüy created the first tactile literacy system of embossed letters.
Essai sur L'éducation des Aveugles (An Essay on the Education of the Blind), Valentin Haüy, 1786
"It is to the work of Mr. [Denis] Diderot, printed in 1759, that I owe the idea of a plan of education for the blind."
~ Letter from Valentin Haüy to the Journal de Paris, 1784, Lorimer
"Capital letters in Haüy type," Lorimer
"The books [are] very heavy. One sentence could take up a whole page...It took a long time to read this way. By the time [the blind reader] got to the end of a sentence, he would forget the words at the beginning."
~ "The Story..." Rosenblum
Although it overlooked the limitations and realities for blind learners, Haüy's system initiated a literary revolution by affirming their right to formal education.
Braille Code
"Access to communication in the widest sense is access to knowledge, and that is vitally important for us if we [the blind] are not to go on being despised or patronized by condescending sighted people. We do not need pity, nor do we need to be reminded we are vulnerable. We must be treated as equals – and communication is the way this can be brought about."
~ Louis Braille, "Braille and Its Importance..." ca. 1824
"Portrait of Louis Braille (1809-1852)" ProQuest eLibrary
In 1819, blind student Louis Braille experimented with an easy-to-distinguish dot-based code, preferring dots to Haüy's bulky embossed letters.
"Louis was blessed with caring parents. His father, using upholstery tacks pinned to boards, in the shapes of letters, taught Louis the alphabet, then later to write with pen and pencil. Louis’ father laid the foundation for Louis to read and write."
~ "The Life..." Canadian Federation for the Blind, Belusic
Louis' new code accommodated for the physical limitations of touch, and his slate and stylus expanded the code's impact by facilitating students’ independent writing.
"Writing with a Braille Slate and Stylus," Perkins School for the Blind Archives
~ "...Braille system for the Reading and Writing of Music," 1867
This code, Braille, revolutionized independent tactile literacy.
Page from "Procédé pour Écrire les Paroles, la Musique et le Plain-Chant au Moyen de Points, (Procedure for Writing Words, Music, and Plainsong in Dots)" Louis Braille, 1829
"Braille; one of the most attractive features of this system is its simplicity; a child of ordinary capacity may acquire the alphabet with a few hours study...it is in fact the only practical one ever adopted, by which we can write music. When its merits are fully appreciated, it will undoubtedly superceed every other system."
~ "Opinions of Blind Teachers and Pupils..." Perkins School for the Blind Archives, 1866
"None of the other types can be compared with the Braille, we can print our own books and make ourselves independent."
~ Daniel Wilkinson, Music Teacher, "Opinions of Blind Teachers and Pupils..." Perkins School for the Blind Archives, 1862
~ Key of the Braille Alphabet, "The Education and Employment of the Blind: What it Has Been, Is, and Ought to be," Thomas Rhodes Armitage
"Quite simply, [Braille] empowers blind and visually impaired people to communicate without sighted intervention. This key necessity of human life...to record your own thoughts and read those of fellow members of your community."
~ Sylvester Prem, "Making..."
European Acceptance
Braille performance evaluations at European educational institutes exhibited remarkable independence in reading, writing, math, and music, making Braille's advantages impossible to ignore.
~ Henry Robyn, Music Professor, "...Braille system for the Reading and Writing of Music," 1867
Starting in 1854, European English-speaking countries reacted by quickly embracing Braille, supporting student-centered pedagogy.
~ "...Braille system for the Reading and Writing of Music," 1867
"I must here explain that there are now three grades in [British/European] Braille, irrespective of shorthand,
(Grade 1) ...words fully spelt out,
(Grade 2) ...with many useful contractions, thus saving much space in writing and printing,
(Grade 3) ...highly contracted."
~ "The Education and Employment of the Blind," JSTOR, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Wilson, 1913
"Dr. Thomas Armitage," Royal National College for the Blind
"The adoption of Braille in England was primarily due to the work of Dr. Armitage (founder of the British and Foreign Blind Association for Promoting the Education and Employment of the Blind)...[who] studied the various styles of type then available...Dr. Armitage was strongly opposed to any idea that tactile reading styles could be judged by the eye. The fact that the committee actively endorsed braille was instrumental in its eventual adoption."
~ "A Study of Braille Code Revisions," Staack
Armitage's efforts stress the importance of prioritizing the blind in decisions for their own education.
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Competing American Systems