"View of Boott Cotton Mills at Lowell, Massachusetts," Gleason's Pictorial, 1852. Color postcard of wood engraving.

The Owners' Case

"The operatives in the manufacturing cities of Europe, were notoriously of the lowest character, for intelligence and morals.. Here was in New England a fund of labor, well educated and virtuous. It was not perceived how a profitable employment has any tendency to deteriorate the character. The most efficient guards were adopted in establishing boarding houses, at the cost of the Company, under the charge of respectable women, with every provision for religious worship. Under these circumstances the daughters of respectable farmers were readily induced to come into these mills for a temporary period. The contrast in the character of our manufacturing population compared with that of Europe, has been the admiration of the most intelligent strangers who have visited us."

— Boston Associate Nathan Appleton, "Introduction of the Power Loom ; And, Origin of Lowell," 1858

"From all the crowd I saw in the different factories that day, I cannot recall or separate one young face that gave me a painful impression; not one young girl whom, assuming it to be a matter of necessity that she should gain her daily bread by the labour of her hands, I would have removed from those works if I had had the power."

— Charles Dickens, "American Notes for General Circulation," 1850

"In general, a few years at the loom constitute a transition state between girlhood and matrimony. Thousands are married out of the mills every year, while thousands more come to supply their places. Habits of industry, and regularity, and economy, are acquired by the girls which greatly enhance their value as wives and mothers. It is very common for such as have saved a few hundred dollars to attend a city boarding-school for some months, where they are instructed in the higher branches of female education before entering upon wedded life."

— Unsigned, "Condition of American Factory Girls." The New World, 1843​​​​​​​

"Knowledge acquired by minds thus undergoing wholesome and constant culture, is necessarily more fruitful than it would be in a neglected soil. It is altogether a mistake to suppose that education is to be obtained only at school, and that, in the process of instruction, the mind is and ought to be passive."

— Unsigned, "Condition of American Factory Girls." The New World, 1843​​​​​​​

"Throughout Europe, ground in the dust by the tyranny of wealth-distrusted, on account of the vices almost inseparable from extreme poverty-watched by hirelings on account of the danger to which governments are exposed from discontented masses among the people—degraded in public estimation by the very nature of their employment—and remunerated for their labor by an amount which only keeps them in a perpetuity of lingering starvation—they rank among the outcasts of society, and their let is emphatically wretched. Far otherwise is it with our New England operatives. They live in a land where honest labor of any kind is no disgrace, and where idleness is regarded as a curse under which few would be willing to lie."

— Unsigned, "Condition of American Factory Girls." The New World, 1843​​​​​​​

Outsiders, only shown select aspects, held positive views of mill work. 

"I have carefully abstained from drawing a comparison between these factories and those of our own land... The contrast would be a strong one, for it would be between the Good and Evil, the living light and deepest shadow. I abstain from it, because I deem it just to do so"

— Charles Dickens, "American Notes for General Circulation," 1850

"They were healthy in appearance, many of them remarkably so, and had the manners and deportment of young women: not of degraded brutes of burden."

— Charles Dickens, "American Notes for General Circulation," 1850

The Bell Schedule

"The working-hours of all the girls extended from five o’clock in the morning until seven in the evening, with one-half hour for breakfast and for dinner."

— Former Tremont Mills Operative Harriet H. Robinson, "Loom and Spindle : Or, Life among the Early Mills," 1898

"Perhaps you would like something about our regulations about going in and coming out of the mill. At 5 o’clock in the morning the bell rings for the folks to get up and get breakfast. At half past six it rings for the girls to get up. At seven they are called into the mill. At half past 12 we have dinner. We are called back again at one and stay till half past seven."

— Lowell Mill Operative Mary Paul, "The Letters of Mary Paul," 1845

"She is also through the winter months required to rise, partake of her morning meal, and be at her station in the mill, while the sun is yet sleeping behind the eastern hills; thus working on an average, at least twelve hours and three fourths per day, exclusive of the time allotted for her hasty meals, which is in winter simply one half hour at noon."

— Anonymous Operative, "Some of the Beauties of Our Factory System—Otherwise, Lowell Slavery" Factory Tracts, 1845

Boarding Houses

"Under this early form of corporate paternalism, the millworkers’ behavior came under the watchful eyes of the boarding house keepers. The corporations required the keepers to report any unacceptable conduct to mill managers. Intemperance, rowdiness, illicit relations with men, and ‘habitual absence from worship on the Sabbath’ were grounds for dismissal from the factory and removal from the boarding house."

— National Park Service, "The Boarding Houses."

"We are told by those who contend for corporated rules, that the Operatives of Lowell, are the virtuous daughters of New England. If this be true, (and we believe it is with few exceptions,) is it necessary to shut them up at night, six in a room, 14 by 16 feet with all the trunks, and boxes necessary to their convenience; to keep them so?"

— Anonymous Operative, "Factory Tracts No. 2" Factory Tracts, 1845

"When she is at last released from her wearisome day’s toil, still may she not depart in peace. No! her footsteps must be dogged to see that they do not stray beyond the corporation limits, and she must, whether she will or no, be subjected to the manifold inconveniences of a large crowded boarding-house... she is obliged to sleep in a small comfortless, half ventilated apartment containing some half a dozen occupants each."

— Anonymous Operative, "Some of the Beauties of Our Factory System—Otherwise, Lowell Slavery" Factory Tracts, 1845

Exhaustion

"If I work in Lowell I shall begin to grow poorer and weaker... if I work Lowell I cannot actually have the privilege of looking out into the pure light of heaven. Tis the hardest work and the most absolute confinement from one week end to another."

— Mill Operative Marcia, "Anonymous (Marcia) Letter." Letter to Charles P. Wardell, 1849

"When the whole system is exhausted by unremitting labor during twelve and thirteen hours per day, can any reasonable being expect that the mind will retain its vigor and energy? Impossible!"

— Anonymous Operative, "Factory Life As It Is" Factory Tracts, 1845

"Sometimes the confinement of the mill became very wearisome to me. In the sweet June weather I would lean far out of the window, and try not to hear the unceasing clash of sound inside. Looking away to the hills, my whole stifled being would cry out 'Oh, that I had wings!'"

— Former Lowell Mill Operative Lucy Larcom, "A New England Girlhood, Outlined from Memory," 1889

Physical Danger

"Ann Graham, if you know her, had her hand torn off. It happened in the carding room. I heard she had it taken off above her elbow. We don’t know but she will lose her life because of it."

— Lowell Mill Operative Barilla A. Taylor, "Letter from Barilla Taylor to her parents." Letter to Parents, 1844

ACCIDENT.—A man by the name of Charles Hamblett was killed, yesterday at half past 7 o’clock, P.M., by being caught in the wheel of one of the Merrimack mills.”

— Lowell Courier, 1840​​​​​​​

"My life and health are spared while others are cut off. Last Thursday one girl fell down and broke her neck which caused instant death. She was going in or coming out of the mill and slipped down it being very icy. The same day a man was killed by the cars [railroad train]. Another had nearly all of his ribs broken. Another was nearly killed by falling down and having a bale of cotton fall…"

— Lowell Mill Operative Mary Paul, "The Letters of Mary Paul," 1845

Contracts

Leaving before the year’s end meant no ‘regular discharge,’ making workers unemployable.

"In addition to the tyranous and oppressive rules which meet her astonished eyes, she finds herself compelled to remain for the space of twelve months in the very place she then occupies, however reasonable and just cause of complaint might be hers, or however strong the wish for dismission; thus, in fact, constituting herself a slave, a very slave to the caprices of him for whom she labors"

— Anonymous Operative, "Factory Life As It Is" Factory Tracts, 1845

"They had an undoubted right to choose their own place of labor; and as the work in the new mill is vastly more laborious, and the wages less than can be obtained in many parts of the city, they signified their wish to go elsewhere, but are insolently told that they shall labor there or not at all: and will not be released until their year has expired... thus enabling them to pass from one prison house to another. Concerning this precious document, it is only necessary to say, that it very precisely reminds one of that which the dealers in human flesh at the South are wont to give and receive as the transfer of one piece of property from one owner to another."

— Anonymous Operative, "Factory Life As It Is" Factory Tracts, 1845

The Speedup and Stretch-Outs

An initial wage increase came from stretch-out (more machines per worker at lower speeds), followed by speedup (increasing machine operating speed). When higher productivity began raising earnings under the piece-rate system, piece rates were cut to prevent earnings from rising.

"In May 1842, I tended 2 looms, running at the rate of 140 beats per minute [280 beats total]. In 24 days I earned 14 dollars 52 cents. In June [1844] I tended 4 looms at a speed of about 120 [480 beats total]. I received 16 dollars and 92 cents in payment for 24 days’ work."

— Anonymous Lowell Mill Operative, "Letter Written to a Boston Newspaper by a Lowell Factory Girl" Letter to Boston Newspaper, 1844

Spindles per operative doubled (129 → 294); looms per weaver doubled (1.3 → 2.9); wages mostly unchanged (Hamilton Company payroll records 1840-1854).

"The question you proposed, on wages being raised, the past year, is that the companies do not pay more for the same amount of work; but the operatives do more work than formerly. A few years ago, no girl was required to tend more than two looms. Now they tend four, and some five; and because they make a few cents more than they did on two, it is trumpeted all over the country, that their wages have been raised. This is a true statement of the case, as it exists in our midst; and, yet, men here have the audacity to send out statements, as false as they are, to the interest of the operative;— and Heaven knows that is false indeed."

— Anonymous Operative, "To E.R.L." Voice of Industry, 24 April 1846

"It is a subject of comment and general complaint among the operatives, that while they tend three or four looms, where they used to tend but two, making nearly twice the number of yards of cloth, their pay is not increased to them, while the increase to the owners is very great. Is this just??"

— Anonymous Operative, "Voice of the Sufferers" Voice of Industry, 13 March 1846

"Should you be successful in doing this extra work, and in working by the ‘piece,’ be enabled to lay up a little more lucre in store, are you sure it will be the best policy? Your employers will, as they ever have done, take advantage of this oversight, by and by, ‘wages will be reduced,’ and you will be obliged to work harder, and perhaps take a fourth loom... to make the same wages that you now do with two."

— Anonymous Operative, "Hints to Operatives" Voice of Industry, 1846

Collective refusals became their best resistance.

"In view of the rapid increase of labor without a corresponding remuneration, therefore, we the weavers of No.2, Massachusetts Corporation, resolve, that we will not allow ourselves to be physically taxed again, to add to the already overflowing coffers of our employers -- that we will not work under the proposed red reduction, embracing a fourth loom and receive a cent less per piece.

Resolved, That we will not tend a fourth loom (except to oblige each other) unless we receive the same pay per piece as on three, and that we will use our influence to prevent others from pursuing a course which has always had a tendency to reduce our wages.

This we most solemnly pledge ourselves to observe, in evidence of which, we hereunto affix our names.

Resolved, That any one giving her name, and violating this pledge, shall publish in the Voice of Industry, as a traitor, and receive the scorn and reproach of her associates."

It has the signature of every or nearly every job weaver on the corporation, and has been kept inviolate.

The operatives can unite, and they will yet give evidence to their employers, that 'Union is strength.'"

— "You Cannot Unite" Voice of Industry, 15 May 1846

Economic Dependency

Wages

"I do not know what wages I am to have as I have not yet been paid but I shall not expect much"

— Lowell Mill Operative Mary Paul, "The Letters of Mary Paul," 1845

"The little money I could earn–one dollar a week, besides the price of my board–was needed in the family, and I must return to the mill. It was a severe disappointment to me, though I did not say so at home."

— Former Lowell Mill Operative Lucy Larcom, "A New England Girlhood, Outlined from Memory," 1889

"Received 8.95 cts from Mr. Anderson. Paid Mr. Stickney 6.25 cts [in board] leaving myself 2.70."

— Lowell Mill Operative Susan Brown, "Caught Between Two Worlds: The Diary of a Lowell Mill Girl" March 10, 1843

"Last Tuesday we were paid. In all I had six dollars and sixty cents paid $4.68 for board. With the rest I got me a pair of rubbers and a pair of 50 cts shoes."

— Lowell Mill Operative Mary Paul, "The Letters of Mary Paul," 1845

The Wage Cut Cycle

"When cotton prices collapsed in 1834, the Boston men did not hesitate to slash wages a thumping 25 percent or boost rents two years later."

— Bruce Laurie, 'Artisans into Workers,' 1989

Even matrons couldn't survive on their wages

"We your petitioners (tenants in your Boarding houses) are under the painful necessity of Representing to you our present embaresed [sic] situation, the unusual rise of provisions and of almost all necessary articles of family Consumption is such that we cannot Support a family of Boarders at the present prices, and pay our rents without rising in Debt. (to keep Boarders we must provide for them in a Suitable manner.) We therefore humbly Request your Honours to allow us Some additional Compensation for Board, — or at least relinquish our rents (if not permanent,) say for one year, or until we Can procure our provisions at lower prices than than we now Can. We would wish to manage & Conduct with every Degree of propriety — we expect to Conform to your rules and regulations while we remain your tenants, if you see fit to allow us some additional Considerations it will be greatfuly(sic) acknowledged, otherwise the prospect is we shall be under the Necesity(sic) of leaving your Boarding houses"

— Most Respectfully, your Humble Servants.
Lowell July 8th 1835 —

— Appleton Company Boarding House Matrons, "Petition by Boarding House Matrons to Increase Boarding Charge," 8 July 1835

"Petition by Boarding House Matrons to Increase Boarding Charge," 8 July 1835. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library

The Intellectual Framework

Drawing on republican ideology, mill girls developed a precise critique of wage dependency that identified the system’s structure and demanded transformation. 

Describing Their Situation

"Much has been written and spoken in woman’s behalf, especially in America; and yet a large class of females are, and have been, destined to a state of servitude as degrading as unceasing toil can make it. I refer to the female operatives of New England—the free states of our union—the states where no colored slave can breathe the balmy air, and exist as such;—but yet there are those, a host of them, too, who are in fact nothing more nor less than slaves in every sense of the word! Slaves to a system of labor which requires them to toil from five until seven o’clock, with one hour only to attend to the wants of nature, allowed—slaves to the will and requirements of the ‘powers that be,’ however they may infringe on the rights or conflict with the feelings of the operative—slaves to ignorance."

— Anonymous Operative, "Factory Life As It Is" Factory Tracts, 1845

"In the strength of our united influence we will soon show these drivelling cotton lords, this mushroom aristocracy of New England, who so arrogantly aspire to lord it over God's heritage, that our rights cannot be trampled upon with impunity; that we WILL not longer submit to that arbitrary power which has for the last ten years been so abundantly exercised over us."

— Anonymous Operative, "Some of the Beauties of Our Factory System—Otherwise, Lowell Slavery" Factory Tracts, 1845

Ambitions

"By 1838, reading in the mill became official grounds for dismissal"

— Sylvia Jenkins Cook, "'Oh Dear! How the Factory Girls Do Rig Up!': Lowell's Self-Fashioning Workingwomen." June 2010

"I usually go to bed between ten & eleven, put the lamp in a chair nearby, & read Weld’s Grammar till I get sleepy. I do not get through more than one lesson usually, but when I have an interesting book or story, I do not feel sleepy."

— Lowell Mill Operative Lucy Ann, "Letter to Cousin Charlotte," 1851

"They will not let me read in the mill so I sleep there & read nights, & some funny dreams I have besides my looms."

— Lowell Mill Operative Lucy Ann, "Letter to Cousin Charlotte," 1851

"But if I go to Oberlin (Oberlin College) I take comfort & forget all those long wearisome mill days & perhaps I prepare myself for usefulness in this life."

— Lowell Mill Operative Lucy Ann, "Letter to Cousin Charlotte," 1851

"I have earned enough to school me awhile, & have not I a right to do so, or must I go home, like a dutiful girl, place the money in father’s hands & then there goes all my hard earnings, within prison walls, my sleepless nights & gloomy days, & all for what? Then is not my earnings a dead loss to the world, so appropriated. I answer yes, & my loss of strength & energy are spent in vain."

— Lowell Mill Operative Lucy Ann, "Letter to Cousin Charlotte," 1851

The mill girls' ambitions revealed the incompatibility between the system's needs and the workers it had recruited; women who claimed the right to their earnings wouldn't accept permanent wage dependency.